Management
You do not recognise leaders by what they say. You recognize a leader by their behavior.
Competency 1: Management
Management is much more than a job title. It is a behavioural competency that becomes visible in how someone makes personal choices, provides direction, involves people, handles tension and distributes responsibility. In research, “leadership” is the broader term for influencing people and providing direction, while “management” refers here to the specific competency being assessed. For this reason, this article discusses leadership as the broader concept underlying the management competency.
In this article
You do not recognise leaders by what they say.
Two leaders. Both have years of experience. Both manage a team. Both have a solid CV, sufficient professional expertise and a clear job title.
Yet in practice, the difference is significant.
In one team, people take responsibility. They know what they are working towards, hold each other accountable for quality and dare to take initiative. There is trust, clarity and energy.
In the other team, decisions remain unresolved. Employees wait for direction, tensions are left unspoken and collaboration becomes increasingly difficult. The work continues, but there is no momentum.
On paper, both leaders appear suitable. In practice, it becomes clear that leadership is much more than experience, seniority or position.
Leadership is behaviour. It becomes visible in how someone provides direction, makes choices, involves people, handles tension and distributes responsibility.
That is why leadership is not a job title. It is a competency. And as with every competency, you can only use and develop it consciously once you understand how it manifests in you.
What is leadership?
At Voice Your Future, we use the competency model developed by MA Nieuwenhuis (2010) as our conceptual foundation. In this model, leadership is distinguished at three levels: operational, tactical and strategic.
This distinction is important because leadership is not one fixed type of behaviour in practice. A strong team leader on the work floor is not necessarily a strategic leader. And someone with a strong vision is not automatically effective at day-to-day management.
The nature of leadership changes as the context becomes larger, more complex and less predictable.
Leadership develops from personal leadership and direct management towards broader influence. From organising work to connecting people. From distributing tasks to providing direction.
At the operational level, leadership is about day-to-day management. Someone demonstrates personal leadership, provides direction to people in their immediate environment, distributes tasks, addresses people on behaviour and results, and ensures that the work gets done.
At the tactical level, the focus shifts towards coordination. Someone coordinates between people, teams or interests, resolves tensions, monitors progress over a longer period and moves between different levels and agendas.
At the strategic level, leadership is about providing direction to a larger whole. Someone formulates long-term goals, inspires people to follow them and anticipates developments that may affect the organisation.
Role, skill or behavioural competency?
These concepts are often used interchangeably. Yet they describe fundamentally different things. This distinction is important when organisations select, develop or assess people.
Role
A role describes the position someone holds within an organisation. For example, team leader, HR manager or project manager.
Skill
A skill is something someone has learned or practised. Examples include presenting, planning, Excel or negotiating.
Behavioural competency
A behavioural competency describes how someone naturally acts in a particular context. Leadership is therefore not only about knowledge or experience, but about visible behaviour that influences others.
Someone can therefore hold the same role, possess the same skills and still lead in a completely different way. That is precisely why behavioural competencies are so valuable. They provide insight into how someone is likely to act when pressure increases, interests conflict or direction is needed.
This explains why someone without a formal leadership role can still demonstrate a great deal of leadership. For example, by bringing calm to a team, providing direction to a project or helping others make decisions.
It also explains why someone with a formal leadership role does not automatically lead effectively. A title provides authority, but not automatic trust. A role provides responsibility, but not necessarily the natural ability to bring people along.
That is precisely why it is important not to assess leadership solely on the basis of a CV, job title or work experience. These tell you something about what someone has done. They tell you less about how someone behaves when pressure arises, interests conflict or people need direction. Leadership becomes visible in the moment when people look at someone and think: you help us move forward.
Leadership in the scientific literature
In the scientific literature too, leadership is generally not defined as a position, but as a process of influence.
Northouse (2021) describes leadership as a process in which an individual influences a group to achieve a common goal. This definition contains four important elements: leadership is a process, it involves influence, it takes place in relation to others and it is directed towards a shared goal.
Yukl and Gardner (2020) emphasise influencing others to understand and agree on what needs to be done, and facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared objectives.
This approach closely aligns with Nieuwenhuis’s three levels. Operational leadership concerns direct influence on work, behaviour and results. Tactical leadership concerns coordination between people, interests and processes. Strategic leadership concerns direction, meaning and collective movement towards the future.
In all cases, leadership is not simply about power or position. It is about the ability to influence behaviour in the direction of a goal.
That is precisely why leadership is such an important competency within work, teams and organisations. People need clarity, direction and trust. Especially when circumstances change, pressure increases or interests do not naturally align.
Leadership is therefore the ability not only to stay on course yourself, but also to help others find their course.
Why good leadership makes the difference
Leadership influences almost every aspect of an organisation. Not only results, but also motivation, collaboration, innovation, job satisfaction and employee retention.
That is precisely why leadership has been one of the most extensively researched subjects in organisational psychology for many years. Almost every major study of successful organisations shows that the quality of leadership is a determining factor in sustainable performance.
Of the variation in employee engagement is associated with the direct manager (Gallup, 2024).
Organisations with strong “people leadership” perform almost twice as well on financial outcomes (McKinsey, 2023).
Of HR leaders see leadership as a critical success factor for the future of their organisation (Deloitte Global Human Capital Trends).
Leadership shapes how people experience their work
Many organisations invest in employment conditions, vitality programmes and modern workplaces to keep employees engaged.
These are valuable initiatives.
Yet research shows that employees’ daily experience is influenced much more strongly by their direct manager.
The influence of leadership is not limited to managers. Project leaders, team coordinators, entrepreneurs and professionals without formal management roles also influence colleagues, collaboration and decision-making every day.
Leadership shapes how people experience their work
Many organisations invest in employment conditions, vitality programmes and modern workplaces to keep employees engaged. These are valuable initiatives. Yet research shows that employees’ daily experience is influenced much more strongly by their direct manager.
What the research does show is that the way people are led has an exceptionally large impact on their daily experience at work.
- Good leaders create clarity.
- They create trust.
- They make expectations explicit.
- They provide space where possible and direction where necessary.
As a result, employees not only feel more productive, but also safer, more competent and more connected to their work.
Leadership influences psychological safety
One of the most important insights from modern leadership research is the concept of psychological safety. Professor Amy Edmondson introduced this concept in the late 1990s. She describes psychological safety as the shared belief within a team that people can speak up without fear of humiliation, rejection or negative consequences (Edmondson, 1999).
In teams with high psychological safety, people dare to ask questions. They admit mistakes, voice concerns and share new ideas. Not because everything is without consequence, but because learning is more important than blaming one another.
Leaders play a crucial role in this. Their behaviour largely determines which norms develop within a team. They signal whether questions are valued and whether criticism is welcome. Can someone make a mistake without being blamed?
Psychological safety therefore does not arise automatically. It develops because leaders demonstrate every day, often unconsciously, which behaviour is and is not acceptable.
Leadership determines how teams collaborate
Many organisations invest in team development. Team sessions are organised, collaboration models are introduced and communication training is provided. Yet effective collaboration usually does not start with the team members.
It starts with the way leadership is exercised. The leader largely determines:
- how much autonomy people experience;
- how responsibilities are distributed;
- how conflicts are addressed;
- how decisions are made;
- how both successes and mistakes are discussed.
Leadership therefore influences not only individual performance, but also the functioning of the entire team.
Google reached a similar conclusion during Project Oxygen. After years of research involving thousands of managers, it became clear that the best managers were not distinguished by their technical expertise, but by their behaviour. They coached their employees, listened actively, communicated clearly, created opportunities for development and provided direction without constantly controlling people (Google re:Work, n.d.).
Remarkably, these are all behaviours, not personality traits or job titles. Nor are they innate talents.
That makes leadership developable.
The impact extends beyond the team
The influence of leadership does not stop at department level. When leaders consistently provide direction, encourage collaboration and create trust, this has an impact throughout the organisation.
McKinsey describes leadership as one of the essential building blocks of organisational health. Organisations that score highly on organisational health have been shown to perform significantly better over time than organisations where that health is lacking (McKinsey & Company, 2023).
Leadership therefore becomes not only an HR issue, but a strategic organisational issue. An excellent strategy without effective leadership often remains just a document. A good leader, on the other hand, can move people forward even under difficult circumstances.
Why organisations often misjudge leadership
Despite the importance of leadership, this competency is still assessed indirectly in many organisations.
In promotions and recruitment, organisations often look at indicators that are valuable, but do not directly show how someone demonstrates personal leadership or leads others. External indicators that are still often used for matching include:
These are not unimportant data points. They tell you something about what someone has done, which responsibilities they have been given and the contexts in which they have worked.
But they reveal much less about how someone provides direction when pressure arises, interests conflict or people need clarity.
Someone may achieve excellent commercial results because they are an exceptional individual performer. That does not automatically mean that the same person can inspire, develop or guide others through change.
Conversely, there are people who have never held a formal management role but demonstrate natural leadership every day. By providing direction, creating connection, taking responsibility and helping others perform better.
That is precisely why interest in competency-based selection and development is growing. It is not only about looking at what someone has done, but especially at the behaviour that becomes visible when someone takes responsibility.
The three levels of leadership
Leadership is not the same in every situation.
Sometimes leadership requires direct management: making clear what needs to happen, distributing tasks and ensuring the work gets done.
Sometimes leadership requires coordination: connecting interests, resolving tensions and monitoring progress over a longer period.
And sometimes leadership requires direction: looking ahead, formulating goals and bringing people along towards a future that is not yet fully visible.
The fact that leadership develops as responsibilities increase is also supported by international leadership research. Robert Katz (1955) already described how leaders at different organisational levels require different skills. Whereas operational leaders primarily use technical and interpersonal skills, the importance of conceptual thinking increases as responsibility grows. Nieuwenhuis’s model aligns well with this idea, but makes this development concrete by describing leadership as a behavioural competency at three levels: operational, tactical and strategic.
These levels do not form a ranking in which strategic leadership is better than operational leadership. Above all, they show that leadership changes as the context becomes larger, more complex and less predictable.
An operational leader can be exceptionally effective in an execution-focused environment, while a strategic leader without operational sensitivity may struggle to engage people in the day-to-day reality.
At Voice Your Future, we use the Competency Model developed by MA Nieuwenhuis (2010) for the leadership competency. Leadership is distinguished at three levels. These levels are not a hierarchy in which the highest level is automatically better. They describe different forms of leadership that suit different roles, responsibilities and organisational contexts.
Operational
You provide day-to-day direction to people in your immediate environment. You distribute tasks, address people on behaviour and results, and ensure that the work gets done and goals are achieved. You recognise and acknowledge performance and hold employees accountable for their contributions and results.
Tactical
You coordinate between people, teams or interests. You align, resolve tensions, monitor progress over a longer period and move between different levels and agendas. You communicate the organisation’s vision and mission and encourage others to do the same.
Strategic
You provide direction to the organisation or a larger whole. You formulate long-term goals, inspire people to follow them and anticipate developments that are still to come.
The three cards provide an initial overview. Below, we explore each level in greater detail, including the behaviour associated with it, potential pitfalls and what it can look like in practice.
Operational leadership
“You provide day-to-day direction to people in your immediate environment. You distribute tasks, address people on behaviour and results, and ensure that the work gets done.”
For many people, operational leadership is their first introduction to leadership. The emphasis in operational leadership is on day-to-day practice. Goals need to be achieved, work needs to be distributed and agreements need to be honoured. Employees expect clarity, structure and fast decision-making.
An operational leader creates calm through predictability.
They ensure that people know what is expected of them, monitor the quality of the work and address colleagues when agreements are not honoured. Problems are identified and resolved quickly before they become larger.
Although this level is often seen as “practical leadership”, it requires more than organising alone.
A good operational leader also knows when someone needs additional support, when there is room to give responsibility and when clear boundaries are needed instead.
This creates trust.
Not because everyone is given complete freedom, but because expectations are clear.
Behaviours associated with operational leadership
An operational leader:
- provides clear instructions;
- distributes work;
- monitors quality and progress;
- holds people accountable for behaviour and results;
- creates structure;
- makes decisions when necessary.
Potential pitfalls of operational leadership
Every competency has a downside. In operational leadership, we regularly see leaders becoming so focused on execution that they do not take enough time to look ahead.
This creates the risk that they:
- continue solving too much themselves;
- delegate responsibilities insufficiently;
- focus mainly on tasks rather than development;
- struggle to step back from day-to-day operations.
The result is that the leader works harder and harder, while the team becomes less independent.
Practical example of operational leadership
A team leader in a production environment ensures that the schedule is achieved every day. He knows his people well, monitors quality and resolves problems immediately when they arise.
The team performs excellently as long as circumstances remain stable.
However, when several departments need to collaborate on a change project at the same time, it becomes clear that a different form of leadership is required.
That is where the tactical level begins.
Tactical leadership
“You coordinate between people, teams or interests. You align, resolve tensions, monitor progress over a longer period and move between different levels and agendas.”
Whereas operational leadership primarily focuses on day-to-day execution, tactical leadership is about connection.
The reality within organisations is rarely straightforward. Departments have different interests, projects overlap and priorities change regularly.
Different disciplines each look at the same challenge from their own perspective. At such moments, tactical leadership is needed.
The tactical leader understands dependencies, connects people and prevents collaboration from becoming stuck. They do not think only from the perspective of their own department, but also understand what other teams need in order to succeed. Conflicts are not seen as something that must be avoided. On the contrary. Different interests are part of collaboration.
Behaviours associated with tactical leadership
A tactical leader:
- connects people and teams;
- monitors shared goals;
- creates support;
- resolves tensions constructively;
- moves between different interests;
- maintains an overview over longer periods.
Potential pitfalls of tactical leadership
Someone who leads strongly at the tactical level can sometimes run the risk of continuing to coordinate for too long.
- Everyone needs to be heard.
- Everyone needs to be able to come along.
- Everyone needs to recognise themselves in the decision.
This can slow down decision-making and progress.
There is also a risk that a leader becomes so focused on connection that difficult decisions are postponed. Tactical leadership therefore requires a constant balance between listening and deciding.
Practical example of tactical leadership
A department manager needs three teams to collaborate on a new customer process. Each department has different interests:
- IT wants stability.
- Sales wants speed.
- Operations wants feasibility.
The manager cannot solve this simply by being the subject-matter expert. He brings the right people together, safeguards the shared goal and ensures that differences do not develop into barriers. That is tactical leadership.
Strategic leadership
“You provide direction to the organisation or a larger whole. You formulate long-term goals, inspire people to follow them and anticipate what is coming towards the organisation.”
Strategic leadership begins where day-to-day operations end. This is primarily driven by the fact that the organisation and the environment around it are constantly changing.
- Markets develop.
- Technology changes.
- New legislation emerges.
- The labour market shifts.
According to the World Economic Forum, leadership, social influence and talent development are among the competencies expected to increase most strongly in importance over the coming years. Organisations operate in an environment that is changing increasingly quickly, making the ability to provide direction more important than ever.
Organisations that only respond to what is happening today will eventually fall behind. Strategic leaders therefore look further ahead.
They connect developments outside the organisation with choices inside the organisation. They formulate a clear direction and help others understand why change is necessary.
At this level, leadership becomes less operational and increasingly about creating meaning.
Employees do not follow a strategic leader purely because of their job title, but because the strategic leader can explain why a particular direction needs to be followed. Employees therefore primarily follow the strategic leader when they understand where the organisation is heading and how they contribute to that direction.
Having a vision alone is not enough. A strategic leader knows how to translate abstract plans into a story in which people can recognise themselves.
Behaviours associated with strategic leadership
A strategic leader:
- develops a long-term vision;
- connects people to a shared ambition;
- anticipates change;
- makes decisions with the future in mind;
- encourages innovation;
- develops new leaders.
Potential pitfalls of strategic leadership
Strategic leadership also has potential pitfalls.
Some leaders are so strongly focused on the future that they do not pay enough attention to day-to-day execution. Employees may therefore struggle to connect strategy with practice.
There is also a risk that vision becomes more important than feasibility. After all, a strategy only has value when people can translate it into concrete behaviour.
Strategic leadership therefore requires a continuous connection with operational reality.
Practical example of strategic leadership
A managing director sees that artificial intelligence will have a major impact on the organisation’s services over the coming years.
Instead of immediately purchasing technology, he first develops a clear vision, involves employees in the changes and creates room to develop new skills. Only then does he decide, together with his management team, to invest in the technology.
That is strategic leadership.
The three levels reinforce each other
Although the three levels are described separately, in practice they never function independently of one another.
Strong strategic choices have little value when day-to-day management is lacking. Good operational execution loses its strength when teams work past one another. And excellent collaboration without clear direction will eventually lead to stagnation as well.
Effective leadership therefore does not arise because someone excels exclusively at one level. It arises because someone understands which level is most needed in a particular situation and can consciously move between them.
Self-awareness strengthens leadership
Someone who knows where their natural strength lies can make more conscious choices about when to rely on it and when a different form of leadership is needed.
This helps not only in day-to-day practice, but also in making focused development choices. Which experiences will help you progress? Which education or training fits your next step? Which competencies deserve additional attention in order to lead more effectively?
Leadership thus becomes a continuous process of awareness, development and adaptation to context. Leadership develops not only through experience, but especially by combining experience with insight into yourself.
This is not merely a theoretical conclusion. DDI’s Global Leadership Forecast 2025 shows that organisations worldwide see leadership development as one of their greatest challenges. The edition was published on 22 January 2025 and is based on responses from 10,796 leaders, 2,185 HR professionals and 2,014 organisations across more than 50 countries. That is precisely why effective leadership does not begin with more experience alone, but with better insight into one’s own behaviour.
Effective leadership starts with the right match
Not every good professional automatically becomes a good leader. Yet many leadership roles are filled through promotion. Someone performs well, receives more responsibility and is asked to manage others. This may seem like a logical process, but being good at your profession is different from providing direction to people.
The question is therefore not only whether someone can lead. The more important question is which form of leadership suits this person, this role and this context.
Operational strength
Someone brings structure, clarity and progress. This fits well with a role in which day-to-day management, planning and follow-up are important.
Tactical strength
Someone connects people, moves between different interests and prevents collaboration from becoming stuck. This fits well with roles in which coordination is central.
Strategic strength
Someone looks ahead, formulates direction and helps others understand where the organisation is heading. This fits well with roles involving long-term responsibility.
An organisation that places someone with primarily strategic strength in a strongly operational role may create frustration. The leader looks ahead, while the environment requires day-to-day direction.
Conversely, someone who is strong in operational clarity may struggle in a strategic role where uncertainty, abstraction and long-term thinking are central.
The effectiveness of leadership therefore depends not only on the quality of the leader. It also depends on the fit between the person, the role, the team and the organisational context.
Research into person-job fit and person-organisation fit shows that alignment between a person and their work environment is associated with important outcomes such as job satisfaction, engagement, performance, intention to leave and well-being (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005).
When someone works in a role that fits their natural preferences, competencies and values, functioning often requires less energy. People experience greater recognition, more control and more meaning in what they do.
When that fit is lacking, tension arises more quickly. This is logical because the role demands something that does not naturally align with the person’s way of functioning.
In leadership, this fit is particularly important. The effects of a mismatch are not limited to the leader. Employees notice when direction is lacking, teams feel it when tensions are not resolved and organisations pay the price when leaders are not in the right place. Insight into leadership competency is therefore a prerequisite for making better choices.
The demand for good leadership is increasing.
According to the World Economic Forum’s Future of Jobs Report 2025, leadership and social influence are among the skills expected to increase further in importance towards 2030. Talent management, analytical thinking and resilience are also identified as important skills in a labour market being transformed by technology, economic uncertainty and demographic shifts (World Economic Forum, 2025).
This means that leadership does not disappear because of technology. Precisely because work is becoming more complex, teams are changing and AI is taking over more tasks, human direction becomes more important.
Organisations therefore need people who can connect others, create meaning, develop talent and make decisions in uncertainty.
At the same time, leadership is under pressure.
Gallup reported that global employee engagement fell from 23% to 21% in 2024, with an estimated productivity impact of 438 billion dollars. Gallup also points out that managers’ own engagement is an important factor in team engagement (Gallup, 2025).
DDI’s Global Leadership Forecast 2025 likewise shows that organisations worldwide are struggling with leadership quality, succession and the pressure placed on leaders. The study is based on data from more than 10,000 leaders and over 2,000 HR professionals worldwide (DDI, 2025).
Why self-awareness is essential
Much leadership development starts on the outside. Someone learns conversation techniques, is introduced to feedback models or follows training in situational leadership. Research into effective management also shows that training in concrete behaviour is important for managers’ effectiveness (Google re:Work, n.d.).
But the way someone leads is not based on knowledge alone. It is also influenced by personality, motivations, self-image, communication patterns, stress responses and the natural way in which someone deals with responsibility.
One person provides direction easily but may struggle to listen. Another senses exactly what is happening within a team but postpones decisions for too long. Someone else thinks strategically and looks ahead, but loses sight of day-to-day management.
None of these patterns is right or wrong. But they do have an impact. On employees, collaboration, results and the leader themselves.
Self-awareness reveals where someone’s natural strength lies and where development is needed. It helps someone understand why certain situations provide energy while others create tension. It makes clear whether someone is primarily strong in direct management, in connecting and coordinating, or in providing direction to a larger whole.
Development therefore becomes more focused. Because the question is no longer simply how to become a better leader, but whether you understand how you lead, where your natural influence lies and which level of leadership you can develop further.
Why self-awareness makes the difference
Leadership is not a fixed trait or a checklist of skills. It is a behavioural competency that continues to develop throughout a career.
Development begins when someone understands how they naturally lead.
- Some people naturally create structure.
- Others bring calm.
- Others inspire people with a vision of the future.
None of these styles is inherently better. They are simply different leadership styles. These differences determine which role best suits someone, which teams align with them and which development steps will have the greatest effect.
Self-awareness therefore makes leadership more conscious by revealing which natural patterns someone already possesses and where there is still room for development.
This may be one of the most important conclusions from decades of leadership research: a leader who understands themselves ultimately also understands better how they can help others grow. And that enables them to make better choices.
Self-awareness can help a leader recognise:
- where their natural influence lies;
- which leadership level comes most naturally to them;
- which situations give them energy;
- which situations create tension;
- where there is room for development;
- which environment best suits their natural form of leadership;
Effectiveness arises when someone understands their natural strengths and learns to connect them with what the context requires. This makes leadership more conscious.
Once it is clear where someone’s natural strength lies, it becomes easier to determine which next step makes sense. Someone who is strong in operational leadership can grow by learning to switch more tactically between teams and interests. Someone who is strong in tactical leadership can learn to formulate more strategic direction. Someone who is strategically strong may benefit from paying more attention to day-to-day translation, rhythm and follow-up.
Development then becomes focused rather than generic. That is the power of self-awareness.
What this means for organisations
For organisations, this means that leadership development does not begin only after someone has been appointed.
It begins earlier.
- During selection.
- During talent development.
- During internal mobility.
- During succession planning.
- During team development.
The question then shifts from “Does someone have leadership experience?” to which form of leadership someone demonstrates and whether that way of leading fits the role, the team and the organisational context. This gives HR professionals, recruiters and hiring managers a richer picture. Assumptions are reduced, development becomes more focused and choices become more conscious.
How Voice Your Future makes leadership visible
Voice Your Future views leadership as a behavioural competency within a broader profile that provides insight into how someone naturally functions.
The voice analysis reveals at which level leadership behaviour emerges and how it relates to other competencies, such as decisiveness, empathy, results orientation, collaboration, vision and stress resilience.
This is important because leadership never exists separately from the rest of someone’s profile.
- A leader with strong vision but limited decisiveness may struggle to translate direction into action.
- A leader with strong engagement but low stress resilience may lose themselves under pressure.
- A leader with strong results orientation but limited empathy may achieve results while losing connection.
It is the complete picture that makes leadership meaningful.
For individuals
Provides insight into their natural leadership style and development direction.
For teams
Makes visible which forms of leadership are present and which are missing.
For organisations
Helps place, develop and guide people more consciously.
This shifts the question from “Can someone lead?” to:
- How does someone lead?
- In which context does that leadership come into its own?
- And what development is needed to become more effective?
The core of conscious leadership
Leadership is not only about development. It is also about understanding. Someone who understands themselves can make more conscious choices about which role fits, which environment supports them and which competencies need further development.
An organisation that better understands how leadership manifests in people can make more conscious choices in selection, guidance and development.
This is also where self-awareness and matching come together. Leadership does not develop through experience alone. It develops when experience, self-awareness and context are brought together.
Because you do not recognise leaders by what they say.
You recognise them by what happens when they are there.
References
This page is based on international literature from organisational psychology, leadership research, HRM and applied research into leadership, employee experience and organisational development.
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Edmondson, A. C. (1999). Psychological safety and learning behavior in work teams. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44(2), 350-383.
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Google re:Work. (n.d.). Following the data: The research behind great managers. Google. https://rework.withgoogle.com/intl/en/guides/following-the-data-the-research-behind-great-managers
Harter, J., & Mann, A. (2015). The worldwide employee engagement crisis. Gallup.
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Kristof-Brown, A. L., Zimmerman, R. D., & Johnson, E. C. (2005). Consequences of individuals’ fit at work: A meta-analysis of person-job, person-organization, person-group, and person-supervisor fit. Personnel Psychology, 58(2), 281-342.
Nieuwenhuis, M. A. (2010). The Art of Management. Part 2 (10th revised edition, pp. 71-98). Lulu Publishing.
McCauley, C. D., Van Velsor, E., & Ruderman, M. N. (2010). The Center for Creative Leadership handbook of leadership development (3rd ed.). Jossey-Bass.
McKinsey & Company. (2023). Organizational Health Index: Organizational health is still the key to long-term performance.
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